The Rise and Fall of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome can be defined by three distinct periods: the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire. Each of these periods saw valuable contributions to the longevity of Roman society, from its legendary founding to its inevitable collapse. 

The Kingdom 

According to archaeological evidence, Rome developed from the union of hilltop villages during either the final Bronze Age or the first Iron Age. The first human habitation in the Italian peninsula occurred about 48,000 years ago, with the area of Rome being permanently inhabited by 1600 BCE. However, the Roman civilization as we know it did not emerge until its founding in the eighth century, when it began as a monarchy known as the Roman Kingdom.

Roman myth states that the city was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, who went on to become its first king. In the 245 years of its existence, the Roman Kingdom had seven kings: each reining for an average of thirty five years. These kings were elected by the citizens of Rome, and required to reign for life - and all kings ruled peacefully, except for the seventh and final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. It was the actions of Tarquinius and his son that led to the end of the Roman Kingdom. 

Lucius Tarquinius was a violent and disrespectful ruler whose use of intimidation helped him control Roman citizens. In his twenty five years as king, Tarquinius waged a number of wars against neighbouring civilizations, and secured Rome's position as head of the Latin states. Public opinions of Tarquinius were already unfavourable, but tensions boiled over when Sextus Tarquinius, the son of the king, raped the noblewoman Lucretia: an attack which resulted in her suicide. The death of Lucretia directly influenced a revolution led by four men, resulting in the overthrowing and expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius and his family from Rome. Two of the men involved in this revolution subsequently became the first consuls of the Roman Republic. 

The Republic 

At the time of Roman republicanism, Roman society was a cultural blend of several other societies: Latin, Etruscan, Sabine, Oscan, and Greek. Unlike the golden age of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic was a state of nearly perpetual war. During this period, Roman control expanded from immediate surroundings to all of the Mediterranean world. Its greatest political rival was Carthage, against whom it waged three wars over forty three years. This first of this series of wars, known as the Punic Wars, broke out in Sicily in 264 BCE: lasting twenty three years until the defeat of Carthage. As a result of their victory, Sicily became the first province of the Roman Republic.

The Second Punic War began in 218 BCE: a major event in which Carthaginian general Hannibal led his army over the Alps and brought war directly into the Roman Republic. After Hannibal's defeat in 202, a treaty was agreed which stripped Carthage of most of its territories, restricted the size of its military, and prohibited the Carthaginian Empire from waging war without explicit consent from Rome. However, when Carthage attempted to defend itself from Numidian invaders, Rome declared war once again, subsequently beginning the third and final Punic war. 

The Carthaginian Empire fell in 146 BCE after a three year siege by Rome. This violent takeover of Carthage resulted in the looting of goods, the slaughter or enslavement of its population, and the complete destruction of the city. Remains of the Carthaginian territories were taken over as the second Roman province, Africa. 

The Roman Republic's involvement in civil wars led to its downfall. Spanning nearly a decade, the crisis of the Roman Republic was a period of political and social instability: breakdowns of political codes, wealth inequalities, and class conflicts. Roman generals sought power at the expense of common people, leading to revolts and riots that took control from authoritative institutions. A civil war between Pompey and Julius Caesar in 49 BCE resulted in Caesar's assassination, and a subsequent war in 31 BCE named Octavian the first emperor of the Roman Empire. 

The Empire 

During the classical period, the Roman Empire dominated the Mediterranean, Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa.  After the defeat of Cleopatra and Antony by Octavian in the Battle of Actium, the title Augustus was bestowed upon Octavian, making him the first emperor of Rome. For the first two hundred years, in a period known as Pax Romana, the Roman Empire underwent one of the longest periods of peace in human history. It was during this period that the empire achieved its greatest territorial extent, accounting for more than 30% of the world's population by 117 CE. 

In the third century, Rome endured the Crisis of the Third Century: a fifty-year period of instability that threatened its existence due to civil war, barbarian invasions, and the plague of Cyprian. It was stated by historians that at the height of the plague, up to 5000 people were dying each day. One historian estimated the population of Alexandria decreased from 500,000 to 190,000, although it's possible that part of this decrease was due to citizens fleeing the city. 

During the Crisis of the Third Century, the idea first came about to divide the Empire into two: the Western Roman Empire, and the Eastern Roman Empire. This divide came about as a solution to Rome's expanding territory - central government could not effectively rule distant provinces, and transportation was difficult. Marc Antony received the provinces of the East, while Octavian received those of the West. Roman citizens did not consider this the splitting of the empire, but rather the implementation of two imperial courts over one entity. 

The Legacy of Rome

The Roman Empire has had long-lasting effects on many cultural aspects: state institutions, law, religion, engineering, technology, and language, to name a few. Ancient Roman architecture influenced the architecture of the Western world. The Julian calendar of ancient Rome gave way to the modern Gregorian calendar. The Latin language evolved into the Romance languages, spoken by more than 920 million people around the world. 

Learn more about the legacy of Ancient Rome with the Roman collection, and subscribe to our mailing list for more blog posts like this.